Issues of Equality in Jamaica

Issues of Equality in Jamaica Introduction The following discussion will look around on the subject of equality in Jamaica using the experiences of an interviewee who is a female 63 year old British citizen that was born in Hanover in Jamaica on the 14th of March 1951 to draw out conclusions. She lived with family guardians as her mum died when she was 5 and her dad lived in the UK, but she had many brothers and sisters. She was loosely home schooled in Jamaica until she was 12 when she finally went to a Jamaican senior school called Mount Hannah. She had very a restricted education as her guardians wanted her to carry out manual work at home rather than pursuing an education. This resulted in here not having a structured education regime as even when she started to go to school she was forced into taking days off to look after her younger siblings or carry out manual tasks at home. Her childhood was in the middle of the creation of the Ministry of Education in 1953 (Ennew Et Al , 1982) and Jamaica’s transition to inde pendence that was pushed by Caribbean nationalists from after the Second World War (Mawby, 2012) to come to pass finally in 1962 (Welsh, 2012) . During this period there was educational reform especially in the early 60s with a big push to increase the number of schools since in the 1950s secondary school education in Jamaica was very limited (Miller 1990). There were 25 children in her school year and their average school day was from 9-3. Her class had only one teacher that taught them all English and mathematics. She finished school when she was 15 years old without any major qualifications and then continued to carry out more rigorous labour work full time. Work ranged from doing house work and babysitting to working on their house farm where she done tasks like carrying the water and the food to their home across long distances. The interviewee was 16 in 1967 she came to live in Coventry in England with her step mum, dad and younger sisters and brothers. During this time she dreamed of becoming a nurse as she enjoyed looking after her younger siblings. She eventually got the opportunity to take a test to become a nurse but she unfortunately failed the test due to a lack of knowledge in the key areas that was essential to know. After this she decided to go straight to work to help her family as a machinist as it was one of the few options that she had with her education. After a year she decided to move out and change job, but again the easier job for her to find with her experiences was as a machinist. In 1970 she had a daughter so took time off work for one and a half years to look after her. Afterwards she then went back to work for the same company but as a cable former but she also started to work as a barmaid at a pub during the weekends. As she enjoyed bar work and with it being more flexible for her to look after her daughter she continued her career as a barmaid by moving to work full time at a bar in 1974. She however had an area of unemployment from 1976-1979 but she then began to work as a barmaid again for 4 years and then later worked in a wide range of bars and bingos and casino’s behind the bar. During the late 80s she done various training courses as they became much more available in computing and shorthand writing with the hopes of becoming a receptionist, but in 1991 she became pregnant again had a baby Boy. For the rest of her life she brought up her son as a single parent and done voluntary work at various charity shops and carried out a few cleaning part time jobs. Since 2013 she has become a pensioner and is no longer pursuing work. Gender Gender was an identify factor that effected the interviewee’s education. The interviewee said that apart from the â€Å"major subjects† they had two extracurricular activities that they could do. It was compulsory for girls to do sewing and for boys to do gardening for the school garden. The interviewee said that when telling the teacher that she â€Å"wanted to go and do the gardening with the boys† he said â€Å"no† and when she refused she â€Å"went into the school and hide† because she â€Å"didn’t want to do sewing†. Because of this a teacher found her and said that if she didn’t do the sewing she would be â€Å"expelled† so she went back in and do the sewing. However as a punishment she was hit by the headmaster as she says â€Å"he gave me the cane on my hand and told me to go and do sewing, he hit me twice, and then said sit down and do the sewing† goes on to say that she â€Å"hated him after that† . This would affect girls and boy’s life chances because it would lower the possibility for boys to get the chance to be interested in sewing and the chance for women to be interested in gardening and thus meaning that their future career aspirations would be influenced away from either career paths. This is also a sexist approach as it implies that women should do the sewing which is more of a house wife job, whereas men should do more hands on jobs such as gardening. This could potentially precondition how children think about themselves and then lead them into believing sexist stereotypes. However if the children had the choice of what activity they wanted to do it would have been fairer and would have gave everyone the same equal opportunities. However when asked if she felt like there was less opportunity for girls than boys in the core subjects she replied â€Å"no we all had the same classes and same subjects† meaning that at least for code subjects there wasn’t the same level of gender discrimination. Social class Social class has been a major factor to the participant’s educational background as she found that coming from a very poor background highly influenced her education into making an impact on some of her life chances. If the interviewee had a different social upbringing then her family could have afforded the money for her to go to school from a young age instead of giving her house jobs to do. This was not a unique case in Jamaica during this period though as high adult unemployment contributed into generating households without male breadwinners thus meaning that children were expected to fend for themselves and to contribute in the household from a young age (Ennew Et Al, 1982). This resulted in many children dropping out of school around the age of 10 or 12 years, to earn money by working (Ennew Et Al, 1982). Because of this it directly affected her life chances as with little education it gave her the minimal opportunities to fully fulfil her potential in school. Education was compulsory in Jamaica back in the 50s but it wasn’t enforced, if parents were punished for children not going to school then this would have meant that the interviewee would have been in education from beginning to end. This is partially due to the policies like the Education Act to define the functions, roles, rights, and powers of the Boards, the Minister, principals, teachers, and students to not being fully developed until 1965 (Ennew Et Al, 1982). One positive however was when the interviewee said â€Å"everyone wore uniform† which showed an effort was made to make everyone feel equal. However as The interviewee’s family was poor she didn’t have shoes to wear to school unlike other children. She did however say that people didn’t look down on others for not having much money and that â€Å"I go to school without any shoes, I didn’t have shoes, and they didn’t bully me. They didn’t laugh at me or anything†. This was a positive aspect of her schooling; as they didn’t judge her for it even though it would have identified that she was from a low class background. When asked if children that were richer at school, had better job opportunities when they left school, The interviewee replied â€Å"yes â€Å" as it directly affected her opportunity to get O levels. She said that when she was fourteen the headmaster asked her to â€Å"write to your dad† and â€Å"make him give you five pounds for books† so she could take her O levels but as â€Å"he didn’t send the money† for the books she couldn’t take her O levels. She goes on to say that â€Å"all the others took their O levels because they had the money to buy books†. Her life chances were affected by this as it could have helped her get a wider range of job and educational opportunities, but children with money would have had a better chance in life. Costs for books, uniforms, lunch, and transport deterred some families from sending their children to school altogether (1987, Meditz S) so for allot of parents any extras costs to school would be looked down upon. She goes on to say that she â€Å"needed† O levels to be able to go into college which could have been a place where she could have strongly expanded on her education and increased her chances in getting a job she desired. After the interviewee left school at fifteen she had a year of carrying out manual jobs for her family ,she said if id stayed in Jamaica maybe I would have ended up been a cleaner or something like that, because I didn’t have the qualifications to get a decent job. This shows that by her not being able to carry out her O Levels that social class and wealth affected what the interviewee was able to do as a job after she left school. Disability The interviewee said that in school â€Å"everybody was the same† when asked if there were any students with disabilities meaning that for our participant didn’t get much visibility of any inequality that people with disabilities faced. This shows that everyone was treated equally but this doesn’t mean that there weren’t any issues out there for people with special needs. Before the 1970s Jamaicas had very limited capabilities in being able to identify and manage learning disabilities in children. Because of this Jamaica’s educational system was unable to deal with the special education needs of physically and mentally exceptional children. It took until 1974 for the government to provide special education services, until then it was provided by voluntary organisations. This would have resulted in students with disability’s not getting the appropriate help and support that they would have needed to get the most out of the educational system. Even though this didn’t necessarily directly affect our participant it was clear that extra support wasn’t available to her if it was needed as In Jamaica the late 1960s only about 50 per cent of Grade 6 students reached the functional literacy standard.(Miller, E, 2011). With more additional help and support for those who needed it this could have been vastly improved and could have helped the likes of our interviewee to get more out of education. This would have had an impact on children’s life chances as by not having an education that is adapted to children’s needs Conclusion These topics all affected the interviewee in their own individual way during her life. Gender effected the interviewee because the extra-curricular activities that she could partake in was solely based on her gender and not her personal preference, this meant that for these circumstances her education was different dependant on her gender and not on her personal choices meaning that she was not getting everything out of education that she would have wanted .Social equality effected our participant as it meant that she didn’t have a good quality of education because of it due to not being able to be in school as much as others and not being able to get a qualification due to her dad not being able to afford books for her to take her exams. This resulted in her not being able to have an adequate degree of knowledge to pass her nursing exam that she could have gained through taking her O levels and going to college. Disability inequality affected her to a lesser extent but specia l support wasn’t there for her even though she didn’t go to school until she was 12 year old, and this would have strongly impacted on the potential achievements she could have obtained. These issues relate to each-other because they have all limited the scope of what was possible for the interviewee to achieve. Due to a substandard education with different elements of inequality she was not able to live up to her full potential. She instead for most of her life she carried out minimum wage jobs as she didn’t have many options with potential jobs that she could do with her skillset or even opportunities for her to go into education part time while earning a living. Sadly by being limited to only doing these kinds of jobs it made her not able to gain a diverse enough experience at work to be able to expand skills that could help her in other roles. This created cycles that lead her into carrying out minimum wage jobs for the rest of her life. Bibliography Ennew.J. (1982). Family structures, unemployment, and child labour in Jamaica. Ennew.J. (1989) Milne, Brian, The next generation: lives of their world children. Mawby S (2012) Ordering Independence: The End of Empire in the Anglophone Caribbean, 1947-69.PP 33 Miller, E (1990) Jamaican society and high schooling. Kingston, Jamaica: Institute of Social and economic research Miller, E. (July 7, 2011). The State of Jamaican Education and its Greatest Challenge. Available: http://www.jta.org.jm/article/state-jamaican-education-and-its-greatest-challenge. Last accessed 6th Dec 2014. Sandra W. Meditz and Dennis M. Hanratty, editors.Caribbean Islands: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1987. State University. (2006). Jamaica Preprimary Primary Education. Available: http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/728/Jamaica-PREPRIMARY-PRIMARY-EDUCATION.html. Last accessed 5th Dec 2014. Welsh. R (2012). Overcoming Smallness through Education Development: A Comparative Analysis of Jamaica and Singapore Current Issues in Comparative Education 15(1):114-131. Appendix Transcription Did you enjoy senior school? Yeah I did What kind of classes did you do? Classes? When I was at school I went till I was 14, and then I was in a mixed class with boys and girls. And I just do maths and English. Did you do science? Dint do science, just two subjects. Where about did you grow up in Jamaica, Mantana. Did you go to school here afterwards. No just in Jamaica. Did you feel like your schooling was limited because you only did maths and English? Yeah very. Would you say there was rich and poor people at your schoolà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹? was rich and poor, I was one of the poor ones Did people wear different uniform, if they were rich would they wear better clothes? No we all wear uniform. Did you feel like anyone was horrible to the poorer people? No no everybody got on, just there to learn, everybody was interested in learning, no time for any bullying or anything like that. I go to school without any shoes, I didn’t have shoes, and they didn’t bully me. They didn’t laugh at me or anything. Did you feel like race mattered at school? No no no race nobody knew about race until she came to England. Because everybody is black, some was white and some were black, but nobody knew about it, didn’t have things like that. Did anyone at your school have disabilities, extra help? No everybody was the same; all seem to be on same wave length. Did you have more than one teacher? For me was just one, the headmaster, in our class, before we went to the sixth form we had another interviewee teacher. So when I went to school was in normal, then sixth form, and in sixth form he was the teacher, the headmaster So you didn’t feel like anyone looked down on each other where you lived, looked down on people for being poor? No no, Did you feel like children that were richer, they got better jobs when they left school? Yeah because when I was 14 headmaster said to me, write to your dad and let him give you 5 pound for books, so you can take your o levels, and I waited and he didn’t send it you see, so I couldn’t take my O levels, because I didn’t have any books, but all the others took their O levels because they had the money to buy books. What did you do when you left school? I left at 15 for a year helping round house, then came to England at 16. Did you feel like school effected what u did after school? If id stayed there in Jamaica maybe I would have ended up been like a cleaner or something like that, because I didn’t have the qualifications to get a decent job. The people who did the O levels what did they do? They went to a higher school, like a college, you call it college here they went to the higher school, learned short hand typing. If I was there I wouldn’t have been able to go because I wouldn’t have me o levels, needed them to go there. Was lucky to come to England. Did you feel like more men went and got jobs than women did? Well I didn’t know what boys did, but girls went to the higher school. But with boys and girls even though we were in the same class, we didn’t speak for some reason, everybody just quiet only one who spoke to us was headmaster. everyone seemed to ignore each other. was weird really. Did you feel like you had less opportunities than boys did at school did they have extra classes? No all had same class, and same subject. I don’t know if they had extra, if they did I didn’t know about it. When I was in school they had two things to do, girls do sewing and boys do gardening. Cos they had a school garden, so I said to them once a week they used to do that. So the teacher said I should go sewing, but I told him I wanted to go and do the gardening with the boys, and he said no. so I went into the school and hide because I didn’t want to do sewing. And sent someone to come and get me, and they said if I didn’t come and do the sewing I would be expelled. So I had to go back in and do the sewing. So did any one bully people? Well no after school only twice I had name calling because I was flat chested, used to call me pigeon chest. And when I had mumps jaw was really bigmouth called me barrel jaw. But that wasn’t in school that was out of school. When they saw me on the street. Was the same as was in my class at school; it was another school the next town away, another school next town away. So were all the schools quite spaced out really? Yeah. Did you ever get hit by any of the teachers? The head master, that was that day when I didn’t do sewing he give me the cane, and tell me to go and do sewing on my hand, hit me twice with cane in my hand, and said now sit down and do sewing. Horrible man. I hated him after that.

Evolution of The Catholic Church :: Essays Papers

Evolution of The Catholic Church Over the last thirty years, the Roman Catholic Church has undergone changes. These changes range from the position of the Alter to the language of the Mass. This paper will illustrate a broad overview of changes in the Catholic Church after the 1960s Before the 1960s, Mass was said in Latin. The priests and the parish both knew the prayers, songs, and Scriptures in Latin. Around 1965, the Catholic Church realized that the people did not understand all of what they were saying. They began to do the Mass in English. This increased active participation. Today, if a person would want hear a Mass in Latin, they would have to do some traveling. For instance, Our Lady of Mount Carmel offers Latin Masses. A parishioner may go Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, and Friday at 7:15P.M. or on Thursdays at 10:10 A.M. There is also a Saturday Mass at eight O’clock A.M. The Sunday schedule is thus, eight o’clock and 10:30 A.M. For more information, check out their web site. Http://www.archden.org/archden/parishes/pp150.htm Catholic schools have undergone significant changes also. It use to be that it cost nothing to go to Catholic schools. Now there is a splendid idea of tuition. Tuition makes it difficult for some families who would want to send their children to Catholic schools. Many kids end up in public facilities, for that very reason. Another difference is that the schools use to be run almost completely by nun, brothers, and priests. The institutions enforced a very strict dress code. Students were to wear their uniform to class. There is still a dress code, some schools offer a dress-down Friday. On this day, the kids may wear whatever they would like, within reason. Kindergarten is a new luxury. Many older people never went to Kindergarten, it was not offered. Years later, you could send your children to a public school for it. Now it is part of the curriculum. It is a very exciting attribute. Catholic schools have also experienced a significant increase if enrollment. Sister Catherine T. McNamee states that "this years total Catholic School enrollment of 2.

Using Waste Cooking Oil as Feedstock and Candida Antarctica

Production of Biodiesel by Enzymatic Transesterification: using Waste Cooking Oil as feedstock and Candida Antarctica Lipase B as Biocatalyst. CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTON The high cost of bio-diesel, compared to petroleum-based diesel, is a major barrier to its commercialization. It has been reported that 60-90% of bio-diesel cost arises from the cost of the feedstock oil (C. C. Lai et al. , 2005). Studies showed the potential of waste-cooking oil (WCO) as a material for biodiesel production (Sulaiman Al-Zuhair, 2008).Therefore, the use of WCO should greatly reduce the cost of bio-diesel. In addition to the choice of lipase employed, factors which make the transesterification process feasible and ready for commercialization are: enzyme modification, the selection of feedstock and alcohol, use of common solvents, pretreatment of the lipase , alcohol to oil molar ratio, water activity/content and reaction temperature. Optimization of these parameters is necessary in order to reduce the cost of biodiesel production.Use of no/low cost waste materials such as the WCO will have double environmental benefits by reducing the environmental pollution potential of the wastes and producing an environmentally friendly fuel. In addition, production of bio-diesel from WCO is considered an important step in reducing and recycling waste. A fresh vegetable oil and its waste differ significantly in water and free fatty acids (FFAs) contents, which are around 2000 ppm and 10-15%, respectively (C. C. Lai et al. , 2005; Y. Zhang et al. , 2003). Because of this the traditional alkaline-catalyzed biodiesel production is unsuitable (Zhang et al. 2003). The use of the enzyme lipase as a biocatalyst for the transesterification reaction step in biodiesel production has been extensively investigated. Lipase is produced by all living organisms and can be used intracellularly or extracellularly. In order to design an economically and environmentally sustainable biodiesel production process, a prop er understanding of the factors affecting the process and their relative importance of enzyme-catalyzed biodiesel production is necessary. A general equation for transesterification (where group R is a fatty acid, R’ is the ength of the acyl acceptor and R† is the rest of the triglyercide molecule) is as follows: Methanol is the most popular alcohol used in the transesterification process because of its relatively cheaper price compared to other alcohols. When methanol is used in the process, the reaction is known as methanolysis as shown in the following equation: Lipases from microorganisms (bacterial and fungal) are the most used as biocatalysts in biotechnological applications and organic chemistry. Fungal – source lipases have been found to produce high yields of lipases compare to the animal and plants.Because their bulk production is easier, commercialization of microbial lipases and their involvement in enzymatic biodiesel production are more common than animal and plant ones (Hasan et al. , 2006;Akoh et al. , 2007; Antczak et al. , 2009). The lipase to be employed as the biocatalyst is Candida Antarctica lipase B (Novozyme CABL L), one of the most common fungal lipase used for the production of biodiesel (Vasudevan and Briggs, 2008). Lipases are capable of converting all the triglycerides derive from the feed stocks into their respective fatty acids methyl esters (FAMEs).They act on the ester bonds of carboxylic acids allowing them to carry out their primary reaction of hydrolyzing fats (Joseph et al. , 2008). Enzyme immobilization is an important approach that could be used as a tool to improve and optimize operation stability, activity and selectivity which allows the enzyme to study under harsher environmental condition and also provides their separation from the reaction mixture without filtration in case of packed bed reactor (Fernandez-Lafuente et al. , 1998; Bhushan et al. , 2009; Gao et al. 2006) and, hence, could lead to m ore favorable economical benefits. The cost of lipase makes up 90% of the total cost of enzymatic biodiesel production. A significant portion of that is associated with the use of expensive carrier or support materials (Dizge et al. , 2009a). Search for cheaper support materials has been ongoing in order to reduce the overall cost of enzymatic biodiesel production (Robles et al. , 2009). Thus it is important to immobilize lipase, to be able to recover and reuse it repeatedly ( D. S. Clark,1994;D.Cowan, 1996). Immobilization of lipase is the attachment of the enzyme onto a solid support or the confinement of the enzyme in a region of space (Jegannathan et al. , 2008). When proper strategy for the lipase immobilization technology is employed , it provides a number of important benefits including: (a)enzyme reuse, (b) easy of separation of product from enzyme and (c) the potential to run continuous processes via packed-bed reactors (Peilow and Misbah, 2001). Methods of immobilization i nclude chemical and physical means.Among these, the physical immobilization by way of entrapment is the most widely-used method, in which enzymes are entrapped within the sol-gel matrix prepared by hydrolysis and polycondensation of precursors (Ko Woon Lee, et al. 2010). Tetramethylorthosilicate (TMOS) is a widely used precursor for sol-gel immobilization of the enzyme. However, CALB is unstable and shows low catalytic efficiency in the reaction media contains high concentration of methanol and the lipase is also inhibited by the by-product of glycerol.To overcome this, an amphiphilic matrix is developed to immobilize the lipase ((Ko Woon Lee, et al. 2010). The use of solvent in the transesterification process is also considered. Solvents are used to protect the enzyme from denaturation by alcohol by increasing alcohol solubility (Kumari et al. , 2009). The solvent can also increase the solubility of glycerol which is beneficial since the byproduct can coat the enzyme and inhibit it s performance (Royon etal. , 2007 ).The use of a common solvent for the reactants and products not only reduces enzyme inhibition but also ensures a homogeneous reaction mixture, reduces the reaction mixture viscosity and stabilizes the immobilized enzyme (Ranganathan et al. , 2008;Fjerbaek et al. , 2009). This is beneficial because homogeneous reaction mixture decreases problems associated with a multiple phase reaction mixture and a reduced viscosity reduces mass transfer problems around the enzyme (Fjerbaek et al. , 2009). The use of solvents significantly increases the reaction rate in comparison to solvent free systems (Vasudevan and Briggs, 2008).Some study also showed that methanolysis conversion using Candida antarctica was increased when tert-butanol was added to the system (Royon et al. , 2007). This serve as the basis for the choice of tert-butyl to be the solvent use in the system, in order to reduce the inhibition cause of the use of a lower chain alcohol, in this case, the methanol. OBJECTIVES This study aims to produce economical source of feedstocks such as waste-cooking oil for the production of biodiesel and the use of enzyme Candida Antarctica Lipase B, to catalyze to transterification reaction.To be able to determine the yield biodiesel through Gas Chromatographic Analysis (Chrompack CP 9001, Holland). SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY Oil is one of the most commonly reported types of water pollution, causing nearly a quarter of all pollution incidents. Careless disposal of oil into drainage systems, onto land or to watercourses is an offense. It can harm river birds, fish and other wildlife. Because of the way oil spreads, even a small quantity can cause a lot of harm.It is estimated that UK caterers produce between 50 – 90 million litres of waste cooking oil each year. If this is not disposed of correctly the effects of oil pollution on the environment could be quite devastating. According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), esti mates that over 200 million gallons of used oil ends up in the trash, and poured into the water each year. This study aims to promote conventional and economic source for the production of biodiesel by using home waste material such as waste cooking oil.Thus, resolving high cost of biodiesel production making it commercially producible and reduce devastation of environment due to high consumption of crude oils from fossil sources. This study will be a significant endeavour in promoting the social needs and to resolve the high prices of the gasoline which is the major economical crisis face in the present society. The advantages of using lipases in biodiesel production are: (a) ability to work in very different media which include biphasic systems, monophasic system (in the presence of hydrophilic or hydrophobic (Am.J. Biochem. & Biotech. , 6 (2): 54-76, 2010), (b) they are robust and versatile enzymes that can be produce in bulk because of their extracellular nature in most producin g system, (c) many lipases show considerable activity to catalyze transesterification with long or branched chain alcohols, which can hardly be converted to fatty acid esters in the presence of conventional alkaline catalysts, (d) products and byproduct separation in downstream process are xtremely easier, (e) the immobilization of lipases on a carrier has facilitated the repeated use of enzymes after removal from the reaction mixture and when the lipase is in a packed bed reactor, no separation is necessary after transesterification and (f) higher thermostability and short-chain alcohol-tolerant capabilities of lipase make it very convenient for use in biodiesel production (Bacovsky et al. , 2007; Kato et al. , 2007; Robles et al. ,2009). SCOPE AND LIMITATION Like any method for enzymatic biodiesel production, the cost of the lipase to be used is one of great consideration .The limitations of using lipases in biodiesel production include (a) initial activity may be lost because of volume of the oil molecule (Marchetti et al. , 2008; Robles et al. , 2009), (b) the use of solvent does not guarantee the complete protection of enzyme from the inhibitory effect of low chain alcohol, methanol (c) Although lipase is not affected by the high content of FFAs in WCO, the high water content remains a problem (d) the lipase in the biodiesel production is limited on a specific feedstock to be used because of the regioselectivity of the enzyme lipase.CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Biodiesel has shown its ability tomeet the energy demand of the world in the transportation, agriculture, commercial and industrial sectors of the economy (Akoh et al. , 2007; Basha et al. , 2009; Shafiee and Topal, 2009; Robles et al. , 2009). The annual world consumption of diesel is approximately 934 million tons, of which Canada and the United States consume 2. 14 and 19. 06%, respectively (Marchetti et al. , 2008).As a green renewable and potentially unlimited, biodiesel has recently come out as the superlative alternative fuel which can be used in compression ignition engines with minor or no modifications (Xu and Wu, 2003; Vasudevan and Briggs, 2008; Robles et al. , 2009; Leung et al. , 2010). The concept of biofuel is not new. Rudolph Diesel was the first to use a vegetable oil (peanut oil) in a diesel engine in 1911 (Akoh et al. , 2007; Antczak et al. ,2009). The use of biofuels in place of conventional fuels would slow the rogression of global warming by reducing sulfur and carbon oxides and hydrocarbon emissions (Fjerbaek et al. , 2009). Because of economic benefits and more power output, biodiesel is often blended with diesel fuel in ratios of 2, 5 and 20% (Vasudevan and Briggs, 2008). The higher the ratio of biodiesel to diesel the lower the carbon dioxide emission (Fukuda et al. , 2001; Harding et al. , 2007). Using a mixture containing 20% biodiesel reduces carbon dioxide net emissions by 15. 66% (Fukuda et al. 2001) while using pure biodiesel makes t he net emission of carbon dioxide zero (Vasudevan and Briggs, 2008). The simplest and most efficient route for biodiesel production in large quantities, against less ecofriendly, costly and eventual low yield methods is transesterification. One of the classic organic reactions (transesterification) is the step wise reversible reactions of a triglyceride (fat/oil) with an alcohol to form esters and glycerol. Little excess of alcohol is used to shift the equilibrium towards the formation of esters.Transesterification using an alcohol is a sequence of three reversible consecutive steps. In the first step, triglycerides are converted to diglycerides. In thesecond step, diglycerides are converted to monoglycerides. In the third step, monoglycerides are converted to glycerin molecules (Freedman et al. , 1984; Noureddini and Zhu, 1997; Marchetti et al. , 2008). Each conversion step yields one FAAE molecule, giving a total of three FAAEs per triglyceride molecule as described by the followi ng equations (Murugesan et al. , 2009). 1. Conversion of triglycerides to diglycerides . Conversion of diglycerides to monoglycerides 3. Conversion of monoglycerides tto glycerin molecules In order for the transesterification reaction to be applicable for biodiesel production, the process must be accelerated by the use of catalyst which may be alkaline, acids or enzymes (Bacovsky et al. , 2007; Murugesan et al. ,2009; et al. , 2010). The catalyst employed directly effects the purity of the feedstock required, the reaction rate and the extent of post reaction processing needed (McNeff et al. , 2008). To speed up the reaction, heat is also applied.However, this process is very energy intensive and inefficient since FAAE yield below 350 °C is very low and temperatures above 400 °C degrade the ester bonds (Ranganathan et al. , 2008). Generally, the reaction mix is kept just above the boiling point of the alcohol (71-72 °C) to speed up the reaction. The variables known to affect th e reaction are: temperature, alcohol to oil molar ratio, catalyst concentration and mixing intensity (Marchetti et al. ,2007). Transesterification catalysts: The transesterification process is catalyzed by alkalis, acids or enzymes.However, the use of alkali catalysts is 100% in commercial sector. The most common alkaline catalysts are sodium hydroxide (NaOH) METHODOLOGY * LIPASE CABL ( Novozyme CABL L) can be purchased from Novozyme (Denmark). All other chemicals can be purchased from Sigma- Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA). Grown in the  laboratory,  Candida  appears as large, round, white or cream (albicans  is from  Latin  meaning ‘whitish') colonies with a yeasty odor on  agar plates  at room temperature. IMMOBILIZATION OF LIPASE Sol – gel immobilization in an amphiphilic matrix was shown in figure below; mL of CABL (8. 2 mg/ml) is to be placed in a 50-ml Falcon tube with 1-mL of 0. 2 M phosphate buffer (pH 7). As a catalyst, 50 microliter of 1M sodium fluoride is to be added and the mixture is to be shaken with a vortex mixer. Then, TMOS (2 mM) and the following hydrophobic alkylsilanes (8 mM) is added; methyltrimethoxysilanes (MTMS), ethyltrimethoxysilane (ETMS), propyltrimethoxysilanes (PTMS), and iso-butyltrimethoxysilane (iso-BTMS). Gelation is usually observed within a few minutes while a reaction vessel is gently shaken.Following complete polymerization for 12 hours in a closed Falcon tube, the gel was dried for 24 hours in an open Falcon tube. The gel is to washed with 10 mL of distilled water, 10 mL of 99. 8% iso-propanol, and 10 mL of 95% n-hexane respectively. The immobilized CALB is to be filtered using filter paper, dried at 30 for oC for 36 hours and then ground with mortar and pestle. The particles were sorted using 500 and 300 micrometer sieves and stored at 4 oC until use. ENZYME SOLUTION Immobilized P. cepacia lipase solution is prepare by adding 0. g of lipase to 1 ml of distilled water and soak in water for 30 minutes, prior to being used. This step is found experimentally essential to activate the enzymes. WASTE-COOKING OIL PREPARATION In order to ensure consistency, waste cooking oil is simulated from the commercially available palm oil by heating 1 L of palm oil on a hot plate (Stuart, U. K. ), set at its maximum heating power for two hours. The oil is then allowed to cool to room temperature and then 5 ml of water (around 5000 ppm) is to be added. The sample is shelved for two weeks before being used.Fresh WCO samples were prepared every two weeks. Bio-Diesel Production in tert-butyl Solvent System Using C. Antarctica Lipase The experiment will be conducted in a specially designed 150 ml capacity jacketed reactor cell. The cell will be kept on a magnetic stirrer (Velp Scientifica, Italy) to facilitate the agitation of the mixture. Water from a temperature controlled water bath (Grant Instruments, UK) circulated through the jacket and will be set to maintain the temperature of the reac tion media constant at 45 oC.The temperature used was that presented in the literature to be the optimum(M. M. Soumanou,et al, 2003; H. Fukuda,et al, 2001 ) and an agitation speed was chosen to provide suitable mixing without affecting the activity of the enzyme. In this part, the working volume at the beginning of each experiment was 50 ml, consisting of 5 g of WCO, different volumes of methanol, in the range of 0. 4 to 0. 8 ml (correspond to 0. 57 to 1. 14 molar equivalents of ester bonds in the triglyceride chain), and tert-butyl solution to make up the total volume.The cell is to be covered tightly throughout the progress of the experiments to prevent evaporation. After thermal equilibrium is ensured, 1 ml of enzyme solution containing 0. 4% g of C. Antarctica lipase per g oil is added to initiate the reaction. At suitable intervals, 1. 5 ml samples are withdrawn into a capped vial, immediately immersed in boiling water for at least 5 minutes to denature the enzyme and stop the reaction, and then send for analysis. The amounts of FAMEs in the samples are to be determine by using Gas Chromatograph (Chrompack CP 9001, Holland).

Negative Effects of Violent Video Games on Teenagers Essay

Video games have been available to consumers for the last 30 years. They are a unique form of entertainment, because they encourage players to become a part of the games script. Todays sophisticated video games require players to pay constant attention to the game, rather than passively watching a movie. My working thesis is â€Å" Although there are other factors that can lead to violent behaviors such as inner stress, playing violent video games are one of the main factors that can lead to violent behavior in teens relationships†. For the categorizing exercise, I brainstormed for the charting using some of the examples we hold in class. I found three main classifications to divide my evidence based on. Those categorizes are background of†¦show more content†¦She demonstrated that teenagers that already have aggressive traits have more tendencies to watch violent video games but still this is not big evidence that violent video games cause violence behavior. She argu es that teenagers only gain violent attitude when exposed to unstable parental atmosphere in their lives. The argument held by Beresin is based on studies done that show a lacking direct relationship between violent video games and violent behavior in teenagers. Recent studies in Egypt showed the opposite of Beresins argument. These studies showed that the teenagers are the most among the society that are highly affected by both video games and movies. There were some accidents that were recorded and related to video games. For instance, a young man killed his father because he tried to stop hi from finishing a game in 2009. After summing up the categorizing by author background, and for/against the cause. I used secondly the type of evidence as an aid to break down my evidence to help me write a consistent final paper. Most of the articles in my annotated bib have different trends of evidence either study/observation/research. For example, Barbara Wilson, has a PhD in communication from Illinois university wrote an article titled â€Å"Media and Childrens Aggression, Fear, andShow MoreRelatedNegative Effects Of Video Games On Teenagers895 Words   |  4 PagesNegative Effects Of Video Games On Teenagers Do you think video games are good for teenagers? Video games are one of the fastest growing entertainment. And 97% of American teens play the video games. And young people aged 8 to 18 play the video games for about 13.2 hours a week. Do you think it is too much or normal? There are a lot of negative effects on teenagers for 13.2 hours playing games. For example, video games are experiencing emotional angst among teens, and many teens are sufferingRead MoreViolent Video Games Cause Aggression in Violent Video Games Cause Aggression in Children and Should Be Regulated1316 Words   |  6 PagesVideo games have become such a huge popular form of media as they are enjoyed by every people from all age. 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